Some species of snails act as intermediate hosts for flukes, and are thus of veterinary importance. Helminths typically parasite vertebrates through snails that act as intermediate hosts. Various snail species transmit different helminth parasites. Bulinus globosus serves as intermediate host for Schistosoma haematobium, the causative agent of urinary schistosomiasis in man, while Biomphalaria sp is the intermediate host for Schistosoma mansoni that causes intestinal schistosomiasis also in man. Lymnaea natalensis serves as the intermediate host for Fasciola gigantica, and Paramphistomum sp. Apple snail transmits Angiostrongylus cantonensis that causes eosinophilic meningo-encephalitis in man. The study was carried out between the month of February and December, 2006. Three different sampling sites at Kwalkwalawa village were selected to study snails and to determine their infectivity with helminth parasites. Snail samples were collected on weekly basis using scoop net and transferred into plastic containers and taken to Hydrobiology Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto for identification and determination of their infectivity with cercariae. Monthly distribution of snails was recorded. The data obtained were statistically analysed using Chi-Square to show association among variables. A total of 814 snails were collected from the three sites A, B and C. 259 (31.8%), 291 (35.74%) and 264 (32.43%) snails were collected from sites A, B and C respectively. The species of the snails identified comprises of 371 (45.57%) Achatina fulica, 229 (28.13%) Bulinus globosus and 214 (26.28%) Lymnea natalensis. Out of the total snails collected, 230 (28.26%) were found to carry one or more parasite or their infective stages. Of the infected snails, 53 (14.28%) were A. fulica, 98 (42.79%) were B. globosus and 79 (36.91%) were L. natalensis. There was significant difference among the infected snail species at 5% (x2=0.05). From the snails examined, four types of parasite species were isolated as follows: Angiostrongylus (53%), Fasciola (63%), Paramphistomum (16%) and Schistosoma (98%) respectively. The results of the study showed that Kwalkwalawa village is an area of helminth snail vectors endemicity, thus, the need for use of molluscicides, biological control and proper sewage management to reduce snail vectors population and the risk of helminth diseases among humans and animals.

Chagas Disease (CD), caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, is a medical and social problem of great importance in Brazil and a serious public health problem in Latin America. The World Health Organization estimates that the T. cruzi infection affects about 7 million of people in 15 countries, with an annual incidence of 200,000 cases. In this context, is worth mentioning the main forms of transmission of CD: contaminated excreta of vector (triatomine) at the moment of the blood repast and secondary transmission routes as: Oral intake of food contaminated with triatomine excreta infected, labs accident and blood transfusion. The last one, was a reason of disease transmission to many people until it was discovered that the parasite could be found in the bloodstream of the individual with the disease and during blood transfusion, these infecting forms would be transferred to the blood receiver of a contaminated individual that can be symptomatic or asymptomatic. Evaluating the methods available for the diagnosis of CD, serological tests are methods of choice in clinical laboratories and blood banks, because they have the highest sensitivity coefficients, which allow avoiding with greater reliability the transmission by blood transfusion. However, for the serological control of CD on blood banks, it is necessary to seek tests that show 100% of sensitivity and specificity to protect the blood transfusion receivers, furthermore to identifying a donor as a CD holder, ruling out cases of false positive. Nowadays, the serological diagnosis of Chagas’ infection still presents some limitations such as the presence of inconclusive and false-positive results (due to cross-reactions with other parasitic diseases). This is a big concern of blood banks throughout the country, because the tests used today have a great sensitivity, however may erroneously exclude some blood donors able. After some years of discovery of this type of transmission, this subject is considered a public health problem nowadays due to the fact to cause great damage by the discard of supposedly contaminated blood bags; as well causing psychic problems for volunteers who believe have a serious and no cure illness.

This study was carried out in Pabau Block of District Pauri Garhwal in different villages between altitudes of 1349 to 1800m amsl to understand ethnomedicinal uses of plants and the efforts of the local people for their cultivation and conservation. Here plants were used for the treatment of various diseases including other daily uses of plants for the local inhabitant. The study suggests that cultivation of medicinal plants and their conservation will play an important role in the livelihood strategies of the villagers.

Background:
Visceral Leishmaniasis and Human Immunodeficiency Virus co-infection (VL-HIV) occurs mainly in risk groups for HIV/AIDS (youth adult males). These co-infected individuals have greater mortality and relapses rates compared to VL as they share similar immune pathogenic mechanisms. Interest in co-infection VL/HIV and the lack of data in the literature led the authors to a survey on the subject comparing outcomes in VL-HIV co-infected treated with different drugs anti-Leishmania used in Brazil, such that Pentavalent Antimoniate (MA), Amphotericin B deoxicolate (AmBd), and liposomal Amphotericin B (LAmB).

Methods:
A retrospective descriptive study using routine program data was performed comparing drugs used for treatment of co-infected patients in Sao Paulo state, Brazil, among 1999-2010, observing their outcomes (cure, failure, relapse or death), and analyzing them by each drug used.

Results:
In the period of twelve years were reported 1,614 VL cases in Sao Paulo state from whom 1 070 (66.30%) were HIV-negative, 117 (7.25%) were HIV-positive and in 427 patients (26.45%) HIV status was unknown. To compare treatment response according to drugs used, we included only the 117 VL/HIV co-infected patients. Related to demographic data we found 72.65% (85/117) of males and 80.34% (94/117) of young adults (21-50 years old). From 117 co-infected patients, 95 had complete data of the treatment performed and these were included in the analysis. The lethality of VL-HIV co-infected patients was 24.2% (23/95) and general relapse rate was 10.5% (10/95). Deaths in co-infected were more prevalent among 31-50 years. According to drug used, 35.64% (36/101) were treated with pentavalent antimoniate (20 mg/kg/day per 28 days), 12 (11%) received Amphotericin B deoxicolate (AmBd) (total dose: 20 to 24 mg/kg) and 47 were treated with Liposomal amphotericin B (LAmB) (total dose: 20 to 24 mg/kg). Patients treated with PA presented similar cure rates compared to LAmB. Patients treated with AmBd had higher lethality and patients treated with LAmB had no failures.

Conclusion:
High lethality and relapses rates occur in VL-HIV co-infected patients. Poor outcome leading to death was observed in AmBd group. There is an urgent necessity to perform prospective clinical trials to evaluate the safety and efficacy of different schemes for treatment of co-infected patients, especially in New World.

Background:
The present study is a retrospective review of snakebite envenomation in a regional hospital in Oman, over a period of 6 years from January 2011 to December 2016.

Objective:
To evaluate the frequency of snake bite, their clinical characteristics, outcome and management.

Methods and Results:
We carried out a retrospective observational study of a total of 83 cases of snakebites. There was no difference in the frequency of bite between Omani (48.2%) and non-Omani (51.8%) patients. The majority (84.3%) of the victims were male. Most of the bites (53%) happened in farm areas, particularly at morning and evening with 34.9% and 33.7% respectively. The common site of bite was lower (55.4%) and upper (43.4%) limbs; 68.7% of the patients had abnormal coagulation profile. During discharge, 92.8% patients had normal coagulation profile. Among four patients of acute kidney injury, one patient required hemodialysis and subsequently developed chronic kidney disease. During the study period no death observed as a result of snakebite. We observed the frequency of snakebite increased yearly and a sharp rise in 2016 with the rate of 49.40%. Most bites were occurred in between May and October, where the maximum peak noticed in the month of May and August with16.9% and 18.1% respectively. Polyvalent Anti-Snake Venom (ASV), tetanus toxoid and antibiotics were used as a part of management.

Conclusion:
The reason behind the increased number of victims is negligence among occupational workers while working in snake-infested areas. So, increase awareness is necessary to reduce the incidence of snake bite by educating people about proper safety measures and in turn to minimize the patients suffering and treatment cost at personal and as well as government level.