Cancer immunotherapy has now finally made its way and entered a new era, after decades of intensive searching of a cure for the incurable. Current attentions are particularly drawn by the very promising outcomes from a series of experimental and clinical studies recently concluded [1], having tested and verified the “Immune Checkpoint Blockade” working hypothesis initially proposed by Dr. James Allison nearly 20 years ago [2]. The next central question is about how to extend or maximize the therapeutic and survival benefits for greater numbers of patients, and of different cancer types. This may be achieved by further identifications of new target checkpoint inhibitors, emphasizing more on the tumor-specific antigenic signals, and through combination with the therapeutic vaccination approach in particular. Here, by joining in the discussion, I intend to start with direct reference to various basic yet constantly evolving concepts based on which vaccination against neoplasm has been developed along, and now progressing towards.

Schistosomiasis remains one of the highly prevalent and serious helminthiases in the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Despite the accessibility of an effective drug against the fatal parasites, drug-based treatment projects still have certain limitations and it is likely that vaccine and effective diagnostic tools are essential for schistosomiasis control. Despite the several decade vaccine development has witnessed the finding and testing of couple of candidate targets, none have shown satisfactory protection. Upon the coming of genome era, it has revolutionized the study of the drug, vaccine, and immunodiagnosis, and also catalyzed a switch from traditional manual testing to automation operation.

For over 50 years, a safe, effective and inexpensive vaccine has been in use but several challenges continue to hamper universal coverage and the sustained control of measles. Before the year 2000, measles was killing over 700,000 children each year worldwide of which 60% occurred in Sub-Saharan Africa [1]. Epidemiologic reports showed that although an estimated 15.6 million deaths had been prevented by measles vaccination between 2000 and 2013, progress has stalled and previous gains are being reversed [2]. Measles related deaths vary depending upon the average age of infection, the nutritional status of the population, measles coverage, HIV infection, vitamin A deficiency and access to health care [3]. The death rate due to measles is so high in Africa that, on average, a child dies every minute. To make the matter worse, every person with measles has a 90% chance of infecting people with whom they come into close contact, if they are unvaccinated [1]. Yet a single dose of measles vaccine is proven to be 93% effective at preventing disease in vulnerable populations exposed to the virus at a relatively low cost ($1 US dollar). The fact that many lives are still lost to this vaccine-preventable virus remains a key concern for global health.

The important biological molecules such as polysaccharides, proteins, allergens and Pathogen Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs) are of nanometer in size. Hence, the size, charge, hydrophobic properties will influence their effects on the immune system by way of specific and varied response. Vaccines play a pivotal role in disease containment and prevention. One of the bottle necks is the vaccine administration system. Earlier vehicles and adjuvant systems pose unwanted reactions due to the nature of delivery system used in the vaccine. Delivery systems are those materials used for the administration of vaccines s in a controlled manner aimed to achieve a therapeutic effect. These systems provide: cell or tissue targeted delivery of the antigen, improved antigen presentation, solubility, sustained release and protection of the prophylactic agent from degradation.

In Mexico, the strategy used for controlling the Avian Influenza Virus (AIV) involves the use of immunizations through an inactivated emulsion vaccine (H5N2), which protects birds from the disease. It has been shown that the strain used in this vaccine is phylogenetically distant from the strains that are isolated in the field. Therefore, the goal of this study was to prepare and evaluate a polyvalent vaccine with genetically divergent isolates of the low-pathogenicity H5N2 avian influenza virus strains that are prevalent in Mexico. A polyvalent vaccine (Poly-AI) was prepared using five isolates that exhibited phylogenetic divergence from the low-pathogenicity avian influenza H5N2 virus strains found in Mexico. Chickens were immunized with Poly-AI and challenged 28 days post-vaccination with two Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus (LPAIV) isolates contained in the vaccine and one High Pathogenic Influenza Virus (HPAIV). Serology was done at different times and clinical signs were recorded. This is the first study that documents the degree of pathogenicity differences between various isolates that exhibit genetic variation in the nation. The experimental Poly-AI vaccine eliminated the clinical signs of the disease, demonstrated 100% protection against the challenge with a highly pathogenic strain and decreased excretion when challenged with homologous and high virulence strains, which was detected by qRT-PCR.